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x/postgres/docs/README.md

PostgreSQL driver for Deno
denodrivers/postgres
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deno-postgres

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deno-postgres is a lightweight PostgreSQL driver for Deno focused on user experience. It provides abstractions for most common operations such as typed queries, prepared statements, connection pools, and transactions.

import { Client } from "https://deno.land/x/postgres/mod.ts";

const client = new Client({
  user: "user",
  database: "test",
  hostname: "localhost",
  port: 5432,
});
await client.connect();

const array_result = await client.queryArray("SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE");
console.log(array_result.rows); // [[1, 'Carlos'], [2, 'John'], ...]

const object_result = await client.queryObject("SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE");
console.log(object_result.rows); // [{id: 1, name: 'Carlos'}, {id: 2, name: 'John'}, ...]

await client.end();

Connection Management

Connecting to your DB

All deno-postgres clients provide the following options to authenticate and manage your connections

import { Client } from "https://deno.land/x/postgres/mod.ts";

let config;

// You can use the connection interface to set the connection properties
config = {
  applicationName: "my_custom_app",
  connection: {
    attempts: 1,
  },
  database: "test",
  hostname: "localhost",
  host_type: "tcp",
  password: "password",
  options: {
    max_index_keys: "32",
  },
  port: 5432,
  user: "user",
  tls: {
    enforce: false,
  },
};

// Alternatively you can use a connection string
config =
  "postgres://user:password@localhost:5432/test?application_name=my_custom_app&sslmode=require";

const client = new Client(config);
await client.connect();
await client.end();

Connection defaults

The only required parameters for establishing connection with your database are the database name and your user, the rest of them have sensible defaults to save uptime when configuring your connection, such as the following:

  • connection.attempts: “1”
  • connection.interval: Exponential backoff increasing the time by 500 ms on every reconnection
  • hostname: If host_type is set to TCP, it will be “127.0.0.1”. Otherwise, it will default to the “/tmp” folder to look for a socket connection
  • host_type: “socket”, unless a host is manually specified
  • password: blank
  • port: “5432”
  • tls.enable: “true”
  • tls.enforce: “false”

Connection string

Many services provide a connection string as a global format to connect to your database, and deno-postgres makes it easy to integrate this into your code by parsing the options in your connection string as if it were an options object

You can create your own connection string by using the following structure:

driver://user:password@host:port/database_name

driver://host:port/database_name?user=user&password=password&application_name=my_app

URL parameters

Additional to the basic URI structure, connection strings may contain a variety of search parameters such as the following:

  • application_name: The equivalent of applicationName in client configuration

  • dbname: If database is not specified on the url path, this will be taken instead

  • host: If host is not specified in the url, this will be taken instead

  • password: If password is not specified in the url, this will be taken instead

  • port: If port is not specified in the url, this will be taken instead

  • options: This parameter can be used by other database engines usable through the Postgres protocol (such as Cockroachdb for example) to send additional values for connection (ej: options=–cluster=your_cluster_name)

  • sslmode: Allows you to specify the tls configuration for your client; the allowed values are the following:

    • verify-full: Same behavior as require
    • verify-ca: Same behavior as require
    • require: Attempt to establish a TLS connection, abort the connection if the negotiation fails
    • prefer: Attempt to establish a TLS connection, default to unencrypted if the negotiation fails
    • disable: Skip TLS connection altogether

  • user: If user is not specified in the url, this will be taken instead

Password encoding

One thing that must be taken into consideration is that passwords contained inside the URL must be properly encoded to be passed down to the database. You can achieve that by using the JavaScript API encodeURIComponent and passing your password as an argument.

Invalid:

  • postgres://me:Mtx%3@localhost:5432/my_database
  • postgres://me:pássword!=with_symbols@localhost:5432/my_database

Valid:

  • postgres://me:Mtx%253@localhost:5432/my_database
  • postgres://me:p%C3%A1ssword!%3Dwith_symbols@localhost:5432/my_database

If the password is not encoded correctly, the driver will try to pass the raw password to the database, however, it’s highly recommended that all passwords are always encoded to prevent authentication errors

Database reconnection

It’s a very common occurrence to get broken connections due to connectivity issues or OS-related problems; however, while this may be a minor inconvenience in development, it becomes a serious matter in a production environment if not handled correctly. To mitigate the impact of disconnected clients deno-postgres allows the developer to establish a new connection with the database automatically before executing a query on a broken connection.

To manage the number of reconnection attempts, adjust the connection.attempts parameter in your client options. Every client will default to one try before throwing a disconnection error.

try {
  // We will forcefully close our current connection
  await client.queryArray`SELECT PG_TERMINATE_BACKEND(${client.session.pid})`;
} catch (e) {
  // Manage the error
}

// The client will reconnect silently before running the query
await client.queryArray`SELECT 1`;

If automatic reconnection is not desired, the developer can set the number of attempts to zero and manage connection and reconnection manually

const client = new Client({
  connection: {
    attempts: 0,
  },
});

try {
  await runQueryThatWillFailBecauseDisconnection();
  // From here on now, the client will be marked as "disconnected"
} catch (e) {
  if (e instanceof ConnectionError) {
    // Reconnect manually
    await client.connect();
  } else {
    throw e;
  }
}

Your initial connection will also be affected by this setting in a slightly different manner than already active errored connections. If you fail to connect to your database in the first attempt, the client will keep trying to connect as many times as requested, meaning that if your attempt configuration is three, your total first-connection-attempts will amount to four.

Additionally, you can set an interval before each reconnection by using the interval parameter. This can be either a plane number or a function where the developer receives the previous interval and returns the new one, making it easy to implement exponential backoff (Note: the initial interval for this function is always gonna be zero)

// Eg: A client that increases the reconnection time by multiplying the previous interval by 2
const client = new Client({
  connection: {
    attempts: 0,
    interval: (prev_interval) => {
      // Initial interval is always gonna be zero
      if (prev_interval === 0) return 2;
      return prev_interval * 2;
    },
  },
});

Unix socket connection

On Unix systems, it’s possible to connect to your database through IPC sockets instead of TCP by providing the route to the socket file your Postgres database creates automatically. You can manually set the protocol used with the host_type property in the client options

Note: This functionality is only available on UNIX systems under the --unstable flag

In order to connect to the socket you can pass the path as a host in the client initialization. Alternatively, you can specify the port the database is listening on and the parent folder of the socket as a host (The equivalent of Postgres’ unix_socket_directory option), this way the client will try and guess the name for the socket file based on Postgres’ defaults

Instead of requiring net access, to connect an IPC socket you need read and write permissions to the socket file (You will need read permissions to the folder containing the socket in case you specified the socket folder as a path)

If you provide no host when initializing a client it will instead lookup the socket file in your /tmp folder (In some Linux distributions such as Debian, the default route for the socket file is /var/run/postgresql), unless you specify the protocol as tcp, in which case it will try and connect to 127.0.0.1 by default

{
  // Will connect to some_host.com using TCP
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    hostname: "https://some_host.com",
    user: "some_user",
  });
}

{
  // Will look for the socket file 6000 in /tmp
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    port: 6000,
    user: "some_user",
  });
}

{
  // Will try an connect to socket_folder:6000 using TCP
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    hostname: "socket_folder",
    port: 6000,
    user: "some_user",
  });
}

{
  // Will look for the socket file 6000 in ./socket_folder
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    hostname: "socket_folder",
    host_type: "socket",
    port: 6000,
    user: "some_user",
  });
}

Per https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/libpq-connect.html#LIBPQ-CONNSTRING, to connect to a unix socket using a connection string, you need to URI encode the absolute path in order for it to be recognized. Otherwise, it will be treated as a TCP host.

const path = "/var/run/postgresql";

const client = new Client(
  // postgres://user:password@%2Fvar%2Frun%2Fpostgresql:port/database_name
  `postgres://user:password@${encodeURIComponent(path)}:port/database_name`,
);

Additionally, you can specify the host using the host URL parameter

const client = new Client(
  `postgres://user:password@:port/database_name?host=/var/run/postgresql`,
);

SSL/TLS connection

Using a database that supports TLS is quite simple. After providing your connection parameters, the client will check if the database accepts encrypted connections and will attempt to connect with the parameters provided. If the connection is successful, the following transactions will be carried over TLS.

However, if the connection fails for whatever reason the user can choose to terminate the connection or to attempt to connect using a non-encrypted one. This behavior can be defined using the connection parameter tls.enforce or the “required” option when using a connection string.

If set, the driver will fail immediately if no TLS connection can be established, otherwise, the driver will attempt to connect without encryption after the TLS connection has failed, but will display a warning containing the reason why the TLS connection failed. This is the default configuration.

If you wish to skip TLS connections altogether, you can do so by passing false as a parameter in the tls.enabled option or the “disable” option when using a connection string. Although discouraged, this option is pretty useful when dealing with development databases or versions of Postgres that don’t support TLS encrypted connections.

About invalid and custom TLS certificates

There is a myriad of factors you have to take into account when using a certificate to encrypt your connection that, if not taken care of, can render your certificate invalid.

When using a self-signed certificate, make sure to specify the PEM encoded CA certificate using the --cert option when starting Deno (Deno 1.12.2 or later) or in the tls.caCertificates option when creating a client (Deno 1.15.0 later)

const client = new Client({
  database: "test",
  hostname: "localhost",
  password: "password",
  port: 5432,
  user: "user",
  tls: {
    caCertificates: [
      await Deno.readTextFile(
        new URL("./my_ca_certificate.crt", import.meta.url),
      ),
    ],
    enabled: false,
  },
});

TLS can be disabled from your server by editing your postgresql.conf file and setting the ssl option to off, or on the driver side by using the “disabled” option in the client configuration.

Env parameters

The values required to connect to the database can be read directly from environmental variables, given the case that the user doesn’t provide them while initializing the client. The only requirement for these variables to be read is for Deno to be run with --allow-env permissions

The env variables that the client will recognize are taken from libpq to keep consistency with other PostgreSQL clients out there (see https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/libpq-envars.html)

// PGUSER=user PGPASSWORD=admin PGDATABASE=test deno run --allow-net --allow-env database.js
import { Client } from "https://deno.land/x/postgres/mod.ts";

const client = new Client();
await client.connect();
await client.end();

Connection Client

Clients are the most basic block for establishing communication with your database. They provide abstractions over queries, transactions, and connection management. In deno-postgres, similar clients such as the transaction and pool client inherit their functionality from the basic client, so the available methods will be very similar across implementations.

You can create a new client by providing the required connection parameters:

const client = new Client(connection_parameters);
await client.connect();
await client.queryArray`UPDATE MY_TABLE SET MY_FIELD = 0`;
await client.end();

The basic client does not provide any concurrency features, meaning that in order to execute two queries simultaneously, you would need to create two different clients that can communicate with your database without conflicting with each other.

const client_1 = new Client(connection_parameters);
await client_1.connect();
// Even if operations are not awaited, they will be executed in the order they were
// scheduled
client_1.queryArray`UPDATE MY_TABLE SET MY_FIELD = 0`;
client_1.queryArray`DELETE FROM MY_TABLE`;

const client_2 = new Client(connection_parameters);
await client_2.connect();
// `client_2` will execute it's queries in parallel to `client_1`
const { rows: result } = await client_2.queryArray`SELECT * FROM MY_TABLE`;

await client_1.end();
await client_2.end();

Ending a client will cause it to destroy its connection with the database, forcing you to reconnect in order to execute operations again. In Postgres, connections are a synonym for session, which means that temporal operations such as the creation of temporal tables or the use of the PG_TEMP schema will not be persisted after your connection is terminated.

Connection Pools

For stronger management and scalability, you can use pools:

const POOL_CONNECTIONS = 20;
const dbPool = new Pool(
  {
    database: "database",
    hostname: "hostname",
    password: "password",
    port: 5432,
    user: "user",
  },
  POOL_CONNECTIONS,
);

// Note the `using` keyword in block scope
{
  using client = await dbPool.connect();
  // 19 connections are still available
  await client.queryArray`UPDATE X SET Y = 'Z'`;
} // This connection is now available for use again

The number of pools is up to you, but a pool of 20 is good for small applications, this can differ based on how active your application is. Increase or decrease where necessary.

Clients vs connection pools

Each pool eagerly creates as many connections as requested, allowing you to execute several queries concurrently. This also improves performance, since creating a whole new connection for each query can be an expensive operation, making pools stand out from clients when dealing with concurrent, reusable connections.

// Open 4 connections at once
const pool = new Pool(db_params, 4);

// This connections are already open, so there will be no overhead here
const pool_client_1 = await pool.connect();
const pool_client_2 = await pool.connect();
const pool_client_3 = await pool.connect();
const pool_client_4 = await pool.connect();

// Each one of these will have to open a new connection and they won't be
// reusable after the client is closed
const client_1 = new Client(db_params);
await client_1.connect();
const client_2 = new Client(db_params);
await client_2.connect();
const client_3 = new Client(db_params);
await client_3.connect();
const client_4 = new Client(db_params);
await client_4.connect();

Lazy pools

Another good option is to create such connections on demand and have them available after creation. That way, one of the available connections will be used instead of creating a new one. You can do this by indicating the pool to start each connection lazily.

const pool = new Pool(db_params, 4, true); // `true` indicates lazy connections

// A new connection is created when requested
const client_1 = await pool.connect();
client_1.release();

// No new connection is created, previously initialized one is available
const client_2 = await pool.connect();

// A new connection is created because all the other ones are in use
const client_3 = await pool.connect();

await client_2.release();
await client_3.release();

Pools made simple

Because of using keyword there is no need for manually releasing pool client.

Legacy code like this

async function runQuery(query: string) {
  const client = await pool.connect();
  let result;
  try {
    result = await client.queryObject(query);
  } finally {
    client.release();
  }
  return result;
}

await runQuery("SELECT ID, NAME FROM USERS"); // [{id: 1, name: 'Carlos'}, {id: 2, name: 'John'}, ...]
await runQuery("SELECT ID, NAME FROM USERS WHERE ID = '1'"); // [{id: 1, name: 'Carlos'}]

Can now be written simply as

async function runQuery(query: string) {
  using client = await pool.connect();
  return await client.queryObject(query);
}

await runQuery("SELECT ID, NAME FROM USERS"); // [{id: 1, name: 'Carlos'}, {id: 2, name: 'John'}, ...]
await runQuery("SELECT ID, NAME FROM USERS WHERE ID = '1'"); // [{id: 1, name: 'Carlos'}]

But you can release pool client manually if you wish

const client = await dbPool.connect(); // note the `const` instead of `using` keyword
await client.queryArray`UPDATE X SET Y = 'Z'`;
client.release(); // This connection is now available for use again

Executing queries

Executing a query is as simple as providing the raw SQL to your client, it will automatically be queued, validated, and processed so you can get a human readable, blazing-fast result

const result = await client.queryArray("SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE");
console.log(result.rows); // [[1, "Laura"], [2, "Jason"]]

Prepared statements and query arguments

Prepared statements are a Postgres mechanism designed to prevent SQL injection and maximize query performance for multiple queries (see https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/15214/are-prepared-statements-100-safe-against-sql-injection)

The idea is simple, provide a base SQL statement with placeholders for any variables required, and then provide said variables in an array of arguments

// Example using the simplified argument interface
{
  const result = await client.queryArray(
    "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mn>1</mn><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">1 AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord">1</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>2",
    [10, 20],
  );
  console.log(result.rows);
}

{
  const result = await client.queryArray({
    args: [10, 20],
    text: "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mn>1</mn><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">1 AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord">1</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>2",
  });
  console.log(result.rows);
}

Named arguments

Alternatively, you can provide such placeholders in the form of variables to be replaced at runtime with an argument object

{
  const result = await client.queryArray(
    "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mi>M</mi><mi>I</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">MIN AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">M</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.07847em;">I</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>MAX",
    { min: 10, max: 20 },
  );
  console.log(result.rows);
}

{
  const result = await client.queryArray({
    args: { min: 10, max: 20 },
    text: "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mi>M</mi><mi>I</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">MIN AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">M</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.07847em;">I</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>MAX",
  });
  console.log(result.rows);
}

Behind the scenes, deno-postgres will replace the variable names in your query for Postgres-readable placeholders making it easy to reuse values in multiple places in your query

{
  const result = await client.queryArray(
    `SELECT
            ID,
            NAME||LASTNAME
        FROM PEOPLE
        WHERE NAME ILIKE $SEARCH
        OR LASTNAME ILIKE $SEARCH`,
    { search: "JACKSON" },
  );
  console.log(result.rows);
}

The placeholders in the query will be looked up in the argument object without taking case into account, so having a variable named $Value and an object argument like {value: 1} will still match the values together

Note: This feature has a little overhead when compared to the array of arguments, since it needs to transform the SQL and validate the structure of the arguments object

Template strings

Even though the previous call is already pretty simple, it can be simplified even further by the use of template strings, offering all the benefits of prepared statements with a nice and clear syntax for your queries

{
  const result = await client
    .queryArray`SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mn>10</mn><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{10} AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord"><span class="mord">10</span></span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>{20}`;
  console.log(result.rows);
}

{
  const min = 10;
  const max = 20;
  const result = await client
    .queryObject`SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE AGE > <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><mi>m</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi></mrow><mi>A</mi><mi>N</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>G</mi><mi>E</mi><mo>&lt;</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{min} AND AGE &lt; </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.7224em;vertical-align:-0.0391em;"></span><span class="mord"><span class="mord mathnormal">min</span></span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">N</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">D</span><span class="mord mathnormal">A</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.05764em;">GE</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">&lt;</span></span></span></span>{max}`;
  console.log(result.rows);
}

Obviously, you can’t pass any parameters provided by the QueryOptions interface such as explicitly named fields, so this API is best used when you have a straightforward statement that only requires arguments to work as intended

Regarding non-argument parameters

A common assumption many people make when working with prepared statements is that they work the same way string interpolation works, by replacing the placeholders with whatever variables have been passed down to the query. However the reality is a little more complicated than that where only very specific parts of a query can use placeholders to indicate upcoming values

That’s the reason why the following works

SELECT MY_DATA FROM MY_TABLE WHERE MY_FIELD = $1
-- $1 = "some_id"

But the following throws

SELECT MY_DATA FROM $1
-- $1 = "MY_TABLE"

Specifically, you can’t replace any keyword or specifier in a query, only literal values, such as the ones you would use in an INSERT or WHERE clause

This is especially hard to grasp when working with template strings, since the assumption that is made most of the time is that all items inside a template string call are being interpolated with the underlying string, however as explained above this is not the case, so all previous warnings about prepared statements apply here as well

// Valid statement
const my_id = 17;
await client.queryArray`UPDATE TABLE X SET Y = 0 WHERE Z = ${my_id}`;

// Invalid attempt to replace a specifier
const my_table = "IMPORTANT_TABLE";
const my_other_id = 41;
await client
  .queryArray`DELETE FROM <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mrow><mi>m</mi><msub><mi>y</mi><mi>t</mi></msub><mi>a</mi><mi>b</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi></mrow><mi>W</mi><mi>H</mi><mi>E</mi><mi>R</mi><mi>E</mi><mi>M</mi><msub><mi>Y</mi><mi>C</mi></msub><mi>O</mi><mi>L</mi><mi>U</mi><mi>M</mi><mi>N</mi><mo>=</mo></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{my_table} WHERE MY_COLUMN = </annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.8889em;vertical-align:-0.1944em;"></span><span class="mord"><span class="mord mathnormal">m</span><span class="mord"><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.03588em;">y</span><span class="msupsub"><span class="vlist-t vlist-t2"><span class="vlist-r"><span class="vlist" style="height:0.2806em;"><span style="top:-2.55em;margin-left:-0.0359em;margin-right:0.05em;"><span class="pstrut" style="height:2.7em;"></span><span class="sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"><span class="mord mathnormal mtight">t</span></span></span></span><span class="vlist-s">​</span></span><span class="vlist-r"><span class="vlist" style="height:0.15em;"><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span class="mord mathnormal">ab</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.01968em;">l</span><span class="mord mathnormal">e</span></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.13889em;">W</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.08125em;">H</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">EREM</span><span class="mord"><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.22222em;">Y</span><span class="msupsub"><span class="vlist-t vlist-t2"><span class="vlist-r"><span class="vlist" style="height:0.3283em;"><span style="top:-2.55em;margin-left:-0.2222em;margin-right:0.05em;"><span class="pstrut" style="height:2.7em;"></span><span class="sizing reset-size6 size3 mtight"><span class="mord mathnormal mtight" style="margin-right:0.07153em;">C</span></span></span></span><span class="vlist-s">​</span></span><span class="vlist-r"><span class="vlist" style="height:0.15em;"><span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.02778em;">O</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">LU</span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10903em;">MN</span><span class="mspace" style="margin-right:0.2778em;"></span><span class="mrel">=</span></span></span></span>{my_other_id};`;

Result decoding

When a query is executed, the database returns all the data serialized as string values. The deno-postgres driver automatically takes care of decoding the results data of your query into the closest JavaScript compatible data type. This makes it easy to work with the data in your application using native JavaScript types. A list of implemented type parsers can be found here.

However, you may have more specific needs or may want to handle decoding yourself in your application. The driver provides two ways to handle decoding of the result data:

Decode strategy

You can provide a global decode strategy to the client that will be used to decode the result data. This can be done by setting the decodeStrategy controls option when creating your query client. The following options are available:

  • auto: (default) values are parsed to JavaScript types or objects (non-implemented type parsers would still return strings).
  • string: all values are returned as string, and the user has to take care of parsing
{
  // Will return all values parsed to native types
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    user: "some_user",
    controls: {
      decodeStrategy: "auto", // or not setting it at all
    },
  });

  const result = await client.queryArray(
    "SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, BIRTHDATE FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = 1",
  );
  console.log(result.rows); // [[1, "Laura", 25, Date('1996-01-01') ]]

  // versus

  // Will return all values as strings
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    user: "some_user",
    controls: {
      decodeStrategy: "string",
    },
  });

  const result = await client.queryArray(
    "SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, BIRTHDATE FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = 1",
  );
  console.log(result.rows); // [["1", "Laura", "25", "1996-01-01"]]
}

Custom decoders

You can also provide custom decoders to the client that will be used to decode the result data. This can be done by setting the decoders controls option in the client configuration. This option is a map object where the keys are the type names or OID numbers and the values are the custom decoder functions.

You can use it with the decode strategy. Custom decoders take precedence over the strategy and internal decoders.

{
  // Will return all values as strings, but custom decoders will take precedence
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    user: "some_user",
    controls: {
      decodeStrategy: "string",
      decoders: {
        // Custom decoder for boolean
        // for some reason, return booleans as an object with a type and value
        bool: (value: string) => ({
          value: value === "t",
          type: "boolean",
        }),
      },
    },
  });

  const result = await client.queryObject(
    "SELECT ID, NAME, IS_ACTIVE FROM PEOPLE",
  );
  console.log(result.rows[0]);
  // {id: '1', name: 'Javier',  is_active: { value: false, type: "boolean"}}
}

The driver takes care of parsing the related array OID types automatically. For example, if a custom decoder is defined for the int4 type, it will be applied when parsing int4[] arrays. If needed, you can have separate custom decoders for the array and non-array types by defining another custom decoders for the array type itself.

{
  const client = new Client({
    database: "some_db",
    user: "some_user",
    controls: {
      decodeStrategy: "string",
      decoders: {
        // Custom decoder for int4 (OID 23 = int4)
        // convert to int and multiply by 100
        23: (value: string) => parseInt(value, 10) * 100,
      },
    },
  });

  const result = await client.queryObject(
    "SELECT ARRAY[ 2, 2, 3, 1 ] AS scores, 8 final_score;",
  );
  console.log(result.rows[0]);
  // { scores: [ 200, 200, 300, 100 ], final_score: 800 }
}

Specifying result type

Both the queryArray and queryObject functions have a generic implementation that allows users to type the result of the executed query to obtain IntelliSense

{
  const array_result = await client.queryArray<[number, string]>(
    "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = 17",
  );
  // [number, string]
  const person = array_result.rows[0];
}

{
  const array_result = await client.queryArray<
    [number, string]
  >`SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = ${17}`;
  // [number, string]
  const person = array_result.rows[0];
}

{
  const object_result = await client.queryObject<{ id: number; name: string }>(
    "SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = 17",
  );
  // {id: number, name: string}
  const person = object_result.rows[0];
}

{
  const object_result = await client.queryObject<{
    id: number;
    name: string;
  }>`SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE WHERE ID = ${17}`;
  // {id: number, name: string}
  const person = object_result.rows[0];
}

Obtaining results as an object

The queryObject function allows you to return the results of the executed query as a set of objects, allowing easy management with interface-like types

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
}

const result = await client.queryObject<User>("SELECT ID, NAME FROM PEOPLE");

// User[]
const users = result.rows;

Case transformation

When consuming a database, especially one not managed by themselves but a external one, many developers have to face different naming standards that may disrupt the consistency of their codebase. And while there are simple solutions for that such as aliasing every query field that is done to the database, one easy built-in solution allows developers to transform the incoming query names into the casing of their preference without any extra steps

Camel case

To transform a query result into camel case, you only need to provide the camelCase option on your query call

const { rows: result } = await client.queryObject({
  camelCase: true,
  text: "SELECT FIELD_X, FIELD_Y FROM MY_TABLE",
});

console.log(result); // [{ fieldX: "something", fieldY: "something else" }, ...]

Explicit field naming

One little caveat to executing queries directly is that the resulting fields are determined by the aliases given to those columns inside the query, so executing something like the following will result in a totally different result to the one the user might expect

const result = await client.queryObject(
  "SELECT ID, SUBSTR(NAME, 0, 2) FROM PEOPLE",
);

const users = result.rows; // [{id: 1, substr: 'Ca'}, {id: 2, substr: 'Jo'}, ...]

To deal with this issue, it’s recommended to provide a field list that maps to the expected properties we want in the resulting object

const result = await client.queryObject({
  text: "SELECT ID, SUBSTR(NAME, 0, 2) FROM PEOPLE",
  fields: ["id", "name"],
});

const users = result.rows; // [{id: 1, name: 'Ca'}, {id: 2, name: 'Jo'}, ...]

Don’t use TypeScript generics to map these properties, these generics only exist at compile time and won’t affect the final outcome of the query

interface User {
  id: number;
  name: string;
}

const result = await client.queryObject<User>(
  "SELECT ID, SUBSTR(NAME, 0, 2) FROM PEOPLE",
);

const users = result.rows; // TypeScript says this will be User[]
console.log(rows); // [{id: 1, substr: 'Ca'}, {id: 2, substr: 'Jo'}, ...]

// Don't trust TypeScript :)

Other aspects to take into account when using the fields argument:

  • The fields will be matched in the order they were declared
  • The fields will override any alias in the query
  • These field properties must be unique otherwise the query will throw before execution
  • The fields must not have special characters and not start with a number
  • The fields must match the number of fields returned on the query, otherwise the query will throw on execution
{
  // This will throw because the property id is duplicated
  await client.queryObject({
    text: "SELECT ID, SUBSTR(NAME, 0, 2) FROM PEOPLE",
    fields: ["id", "ID"],
  });
}

{
  // This will throw because the returned number of columns doesn't match the
  // number of defined ones in the function call
  await client.queryObject({
    text: "SELECT ID, SUBSTR(NAME, 0, 2) FROM PEOPLE",
    fields: ["id", "name", "something_else"],
  });
}

Transactions

A lot of effort was put into abstracting Transactions in the library, and the final result is an API that is both simple to use and offers all of the options and features that you would get by executing SQL statements, plus an extra layer of abstraction that helps you catch mistakes ahead of time.

Creating a transaction

Both simple clients and connection pools are capable of creating transactions, and they work in a similar fashion internally.

const transaction = my_client.createTransaction("transaction_1", {
  isolation_level: "repeatable_read",
});

await transaction.begin();
// Safe operations that can be rolled back if the result is not the expected
await transaction.queryArray`UPDATE TABLE X SET Y = 1`;
// All changes are saved
await transaction.commit();

Transaction operations vs client operations

Transaction locks

Due to how SQL transactions work, every time you begin a transaction all queries you do in your session will run inside that transaction context. This is a problem for query execution since it might cause queries that are meant to do persistent changes to the database to live inside this context, making them susceptible to being rolled back unintentionally. We will call this kind of queries unsafe operations.

Every time you create a transaction the client you use will get a lock, with the purpose of blocking any external queries from running while a transaction takes course, effectively avoiding all unsafe operations.

const transaction = my_client.createTransaction("transaction_1");

await transaction.begin();
await transaction.queryArray`UPDATE TABLE X SET Y = 1`;
// Oops, the client is locked out, this operation will throw
await my_client.queryArray`DELETE TABLE X`;
// Client is released after the transaction ends
await transaction.commit();

// Operations in the main client can now be executed normally
await client.queryArray`DELETE TABLE X`;

For this very reason, however, if you are using transactions in an application with concurrent access like an API, it is recommended that you don’t use the Client API at all. If you do so, the client will be blocked from executing other queries until the transaction has finished. Instead, use a connection pool, that way all your operations will be executed in a different context without locking the main client.

const client_1 = await pool.connect();
const client_2 = await pool.connect();

const transaction = client_1.createTransaction("transaction_1");

await transaction.begin();
await transaction.queryArray`UPDATE TABLE X SET Y = 1`;
// Code that is meant to be executed concurrently, will run normally
await client_2.queryArray`DELETE TABLE Z`;
await transaction.commit();

await client_1.release();
await client_2.release();
Transaction errors

When you are inside a Transaction block in PostgreSQL, reaching an error is terminal for the transaction. Executing the following in PostgreSQL will cause all changes to be undone and the transaction to become unusable until it has ended.

BEGIN;

UPDATE MY_TABLE SET NAME = 'Nicolas';
SELECT []; -- Syntax error, transaction will abort
SELECT ID FROM MY_TABLE; -- Will attempt to execute, but will fail cause transaction was aborted

COMMIT; -- Transaction will end, but no changes to MY_TABLE will be made

However, due to how JavaScript works we can handle these kinds of errors in a more fashionable way. All failed queries inside a transaction will automatically end it and release the main client.

/**
 * This function will return a boolean regarding the transaction completion status
 */
function executeMyTransaction() {
  try {
    const transaction = client.createTransaction("abortable");
    await transaction.begin();

    await transaction.queryArray`UPDATE MY_TABLE SET NAME = 'Nicolas'`;
    await transaction.queryArray`SELECT []`; // Error will be thrown, transaction will be aborted
    await transaction.queryArray`SELECT ID FROM MY_TABLE`; // Won't even attempt to execute

    await transaction.commit(); // Don't even need it, the transaction was already ended
  } catch (e) {
    return false;
  }

  return true;
}

This limits only to database-related errors though, regular errors won’t end the connection and may allow the user to execute a different code path. This is especially good for ahead-of-time validation errors such as the ones found in the rollback and savepoint features.

const transaction = client.createTransaction("abortable");
await transaction.begin();

let savepoint;
try{
  // Oops, savepoints can't start with a number
  // Validation error, transaction won't be ended
  savepoint = await transaction.savepoint("1");
}catch(e){
  // We validate the error was not related to transaction execution
  if(!(e instance of TransactionError)){
    // We create a good savepoint we can use
    savepoint = await transaction.savepoint("a_valid_name");
  }else{
    throw e;
  }
}

// Transaction is still open and good to go
await transaction.queryArray`UPDATE MY_TABLE SET NAME = 'Nicolas'`;
await transaction.rollback(savepoint); // Undo changes after the savepoint creation

await transaction.commit();

Transaction options

PostgreSQL provides many options to customize the behavior of transactions, such as isolation level, read modes, and startup snapshot. All these options can be set by passing a second argument to the startTransaction method

const transaction = client.createTransaction("ts_1", {
  isolation_level: "serializable",
  read_only: true,
  snapshot: "snapshot_code",
});
Isolation Level

Setting an isolation level protects your transaction from operations that took place after the transaction had begun.

The following is a demonstration. A sensible transaction that loads a table with some very important test results and the students that passed said test. This is a long-running operation, and in the meanwhile, someone is tasked to clean up the results from the tests table because it’s taking up too much space in the database.

If the transaction were to be executed as follows, the test results would be lost before the graduated students could be extracted from the original table, causing a mismatch in the data.

const client_1 = await pool.connect();
const client_2 = await pool.connect();

const transaction = client_1.createTransaction("transaction_1");

await transaction.begin();

await transaction
  .queryArray`CREATE TABLE TEST_RESULTS (USER_ID INTEGER, GRADE NUMERIC(10,2))`;
await transaction.queryArray`CREATE TABLE GRADUATED_STUDENTS (USER_ID INTEGER)`;

// This operation takes several minutes
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO TEST_RESULTS
  SELECT
    USER_ID, GRADE
  FROM TESTS
  WHERE TEST_TYPE = 'final_test'`;

// A third party, whose task is to clean up the test results
// executes this query while the operation above still takes place
await client_2.queryArray`DELETE FROM TESTS WHERE TEST_TYPE = 'final_test'`;

// Test information is gone, and no data will be loaded into the graduated students table
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO GRADUATED_STUDENTS
  SELECT
    USER_ID
  FROM TESTS
  WHERE TEST_TYPE = 'final_test'
  AND GRADE >= 3.0`;

await transaction.commit();

await client_1.release();
await client_2.release();

In order to ensure scenarios like the above don’t happen, Postgres provides the following levels of transaction isolation:

  • Read committed: This is the normal behavior of a transaction. External changes to the database will be visible inside the transaction once they are committed.

  • Repeatable read: This isolates the transaction in a way that any external changes to the data we are reading won’t be visible inside the transaction until it has finished

    const client_1 = await pool.connect();
const client_2 = await pool.connect();

const transaction = await client_1.createTransaction("isolated_transaction", {
  isolation_level: "repeatable_read",
});

await transaction.begin();
// This locks the current value of IMPORTANT_TABLE
// Up to this point, all other external changes will be included
const { rows: query_1 } = await transaction.queryObject<{
  password: string;
}>`SELECT PASSWORD FROM IMPORTANT_TABLE WHERE ID = ${my_id}`;
const password_1 = rows[0].password;

// Concurrent operation executed by a different user in a different part of the code
await client_2
  .queryArray`UPDATE IMPORTANT_TABLE SET PASSWORD = 'something_else' WHERE ID = ${the_same_id}`;

const { rows: query_2 } = await transaction.queryObject<{
  password: string;
}>`SELECT PASSWORD FROM IMPORTANT_TABLE WHERE ID = ${my_id}`;
const password_2 = rows[0].password;

// Database state is not updated while the transaction is ongoing
assertEquals(password_1, password_2);

// Transaction finishes, changes executed outside the transaction are now visible
await transaction.commit();

await client_1.release();
await client_2.release();

  • Serializable: Just like the repeatable read mode, all external changes won’t be visible until the transaction has finished. However, this also prevents the current transaction from making persistent changes if the data they were reading at the beginning of the transaction has been modified (recommended)

    const client_1 = await pool.connect();
const client_2 = await pool.connect();

const transaction = await client_1.createTransaction("isolated_transaction", {
  isolation_level: "serializable",
});

await transaction.begin();
// This locks the current value of IMPORTANT_TABLE
// Up to this point, all other external changes will be included
await transaction.queryObject<{
  password: string;
}>`SELECT PASSWORD FROM IMPORTANT_TABLE WHERE ID = ${my_id}`;

// Concurrent operation executed by a different user in a different part of the code
await client_2
  .queryArray`UPDATE IMPORTANT_TABLE SET PASSWORD = 'something_else' WHERE ID = ${the_same_id}`;

// This statement will throw
// Target was modified outside of the transaction
// User may not be aware of the changes
await transaction
  .queryArray`UPDATE IMPORTANT_TABLE SET PASSWORD = 'shiny_new_password' WHERE ID = ${the_same_id}`;

// Transaction is aborted, no need to end it

await client_1.release();
await client_2.release();
Read modes

In many cases, and especially when allowing third parties to access data inside your database it might be a good choice to prevent queries from modifying the database in the course of the transaction. You can revoke these write privileges by setting read_only: true in the transaction options. The default for all transactions will be to enable write permission.

const transaction = await client.createTransaction("my_transaction", {
  read_only: true,
});
Snapshots

One of the most interesting features that Postgres transactions have it’s the ability to share starting point snapshots between them. For example, if you initialized a repeatable read transaction before a particularly sensible change in the database, and you would like to start several transactions with that same before-the-change state you can do the following:

const snapshot = await ongoing_transaction.getSnapshot();

const new_transaction = client.createTransaction("new_transaction", {
  isolation_level: "repeatable_read",
  snapshot,
});
// new_transaction now shares the same starting state that ongoing_transaction had

Transaction features

Commit

Committing a transaction will persist all changes made inside it, releasing the client from which the transaction spawned and allowing for normal operations to take place.

const transaction = client.createTransaction("successful_transaction");
await transaction.begin();
await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DELETE_ME`;
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
await transaction.commit(); // All changes are persisted, client is released

However, what if we intended to commit the previous changes without ending the transaction? The commit method provides a chain option that allows us to continue in the transaction after the changes have been persisted as demonstrated here:

const transaction = client.createTransaction("successful_transaction");
await transaction.begin();

await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DELETE_ME`;
await transaction.commit({ chain: true }); // Changes are committed

// Still inside the transaction
// Rolling back or aborting here won't affect the previous operation
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
await transaction.commit(); // Changes are committed, client is released
Savepoints

Savepoints are a powerful feature that allows us to keep track of transaction operations, and if we want to, undo said specific changes without having to reset the whole transaction.

const transaction = client.createTransaction("successful_transaction");
await transaction.begin();

await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DONT_DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
const savepoint = await transaction.savepoint("before_delete");

await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`; // Oops, I didn't mean that
await transaction.rollback(savepoint); // Truncate is undone, insert is still applied

// Transaction goes on as usual
await transaction.commit();

A savepoint can also have multiple positions inside a transaction, and we can accomplish that by using the update method of a savepoint.

await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DONT_DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
const savepoint = await transaction.savepoint("before_delete");

await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`;
await savepoint.update(savepoint); // If I rollback savepoint now, it won't undo the truncate

However, if we wanted to undo one of these updates we could use the release method in the savepoint to undo the last update and access the previous point of that savepoint.

await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DONT_DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
const savepoint = await transaction.savepoint("before_delete");

await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`;
await savepoint.update(savepoint); // Actually, I didn't meant this

await savepoint.release(); // The savepoint is again the first one we set
await transaction.rollback(savepoint); // Truncate gets undone
Rollback

A rollback allows the user to end the transaction without persisting the changes made to the database, preventing that way any unwanted operation from taking place.

const transaction = client.createTransaction("rolled_back_transaction");
await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`; // Oops, wrong table
await transaction.rollback(); // No changes are applied, transaction ends

You can also localize those changes to be undone using the savepoint feature as explained above in the Savepoint documentation.

const transaction = client.createTransaction(
  "partially_rolled_back_transaction",
);
await transaction.savepoint("undo");
await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`; // Oops, wrong table
await transaction.rollback("undo"); // Truncate is rolled back, transaction continues
// Ongoing transaction operations here

If we intended to rollback all changes but still continue in the current transaction, we can use the chain option in a similar fashion to how we would do it in the commit method.

const transaction = client.createTransaction("rolled_back_transaction");
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DONT_DELETE_ME VALUES (1)`;
await transaction.queryArray`TRUNCATE TABLE DONT_DELETE_ME`;
await transaction.rollback({ chain: true }); // All changes get undone
await transaction.queryArray`INSERT INTO DONT_DELETE_ME VALUES (2)`; // Still inside the transaction
await transaction.commit();
// Transaction ends, client gets unlocked

Debugging

The driver can provide different types of logs if as needed. By default, logs are disabled to keep your environment as uncluttered as possible. Logging can be enabled by using the debug option in the Client controls parameter. Pass true to enable all logs, or turn on logs granulary by enabling the following options:

  • queries : Logs all SQL queries executed by the client
  • notices : Logs all database messages (INFO, NOTICE, WARNING))
  • results : Logs all the result of the queries
  • queryInError : Includes the SQL query that caused an error in the PostgresError object

Example

// debug_test.ts
import { Client } from "./mod.ts";

const client = new Client({
  user: "postgres",
  database: "postgres",
  hostname: "localhost",
  port: 5432,
  password: "postgres",
  controls: {
    debug: {
      queries: true,
      notices: true,
      results: true,
    },
  },
});

await client.connect();

await client.queryObject`SELECT public.get_uuid()`;

await client.end();
-- example database function that raises messages
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION public.get_uuid()
  RETURNS uuid LANGUAGE plpgsql
AS <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mi>f</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>n</mi></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">function</annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.8889em;vertical-align:-0.1944em;"></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10764em;">f</span><span class="mord mathnormal">u</span><span class="mord mathnormal">n</span><span class="mord mathnormal">c</span><span class="mord mathnormal">t</span><span class="mord mathnormal">i</span><span class="mord mathnormal">o</span><span class="mord mathnormal">n</span></span></span></span>
  BEGIN
    RAISE INFO 'This function generates a random UUID :)';
    RAISE NOTICE 'A UUID takes up 128 bits in memory.';
    RAISE WARNING 'UUIDs must follow a specific format and lenght in order to be valid!';
    RETURN gen_random_uuid();
  END; <span class="katex"><span class="katex-mathml"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><semantics><mrow><mi>f</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>n</mi></mrow><annotation encoding="application/x-tex">function</annotation></semantics></math></span><span class="katex-html" aria-hidden="true"><span class="base"><span class="strut" style="height:0.8889em;vertical-align:-0.1944em;"></span><span class="mord mathnormal" style="margin-right:0.10764em;">f</span><span class="mord mathnormal">u</span><span class="mord mathnormal">n</span><span class="mord mathnormal">c</span><span class="mord mathnormal">t</span><span class="mord mathnormal">i</span><span class="mord mathnormal">o</span><span class="mord mathnormal">n</span></span></span></span>;;

debug-output